Online Delivery of a Manipulative-Based Intervention Package for Finding Equivalent Fractions.

Mathematics education for students with and at-risk for a disability is important and high-quality, research-supported practices should be used for online teaching-whether intentional or as a result of a global pandemic. This single-case design multiple probe replicated across participants study explored the online delivery of an intervention package consisting of the virtual-abstract instructional sequence-taught via modified explicit instruction-and the system of least prompts to three upper elementary students with a disability or at-risk in solving equivalent fractions. Researchers determined a functional relation existed between the intervention package and student accuracy. Researchers also found students were independent and able to maintain accuracy when instruction did not proceed either following the intervention or with the support of boost sessions. Implications for providing mathematical interventions to students with disabilities or at-risk online exist. Further, the study lends support to virtual manipulative-based instructional sequences, as the setting, population, and implementation of explicit instruction differed in this study as compared to previous research.

Maintenance in Mathematics for Individuals with Intellectual Disability: A Systematic Review of Literature.

Despite the growing attention being paid to teaching mathematics for students with disabilities, the existing research tends to focus on mathematical skill acquisition, but not on skill maintenance. The researchers in this study reviewed all studies from 1975 to 2018 that involved teaching mathematics to individuals with intellectual disability. A total of 135 studies met inclusion criteria, but only 53 studies involved a maintenance phase (39.2%). Among the 53 studies, only 22 were included for the final analysis, after evaluating their methodological rigor. In those 22 studies, there was no consensus among researchers on the standards for conducting a maintenance phase (i.e., latency between intervention and maintenance phases, length of maintenance phase, number of maintenance sessions). Further, in the studies which included a maintenance phase, the most widely taught mathematical content was numbers and operations. All studies employed intervention packages which included more than one instructional method and/or materials and the most widely used instructional method was prompting while the most widely used instructional materials were visual supports and manipulatives. The results suggest that prompting is an evidence-based practice for individuals with intellectual disability in supporting maintenance, while explicit instruction, time delay, feedback, and instructional sequence (e.g., the virtual-representational-abstract instructional sequence) are potentially evidence-based practice for individuals with intellectual disability.

Teaching students with intellectual and developmental disabilities to calculate cost after discounts via schematic diagrams.

BACKGROUND/AIMS/METHODS: Life skills instruction is important for students with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) and an emerging research base exists in which schema instruction is used to support students with IDD. In this single-case multiple probe across participants study, researchers explored the use of a schematic diagram in conjunction with the system of least prompts (SLP) to support the acquisition, fluency, maintenance, and generalization of life skills mathematics for secondary students with IDD. PROCEDURES/OUTCOMES: Researchers collected data relative to student accuracy and independence in solving problems involving finding the cost of an item after a discount (i.e., sale or coupon). Researchers collected data across baseline, intervention, maintenance, and generalization phases. RESULTS/CONCLUSION: Researchers found a functional relation between the intervention package and accuracy for all three students. Students were successful with the schematic diagram, however, the data for generalization to when no schema was provided were more idiosyncratic. IMPLICATIONS: This research holds implications for the use of a schematic diagram to support students with IDD learning life-skills mathematical problem solving.

Using a Virtual Manipulative Intervention Package to Support Maintenance in Teaching Subtraction with Regrouping to Students with Developmental Disabilities.

To live independently, it is critical that students with disabilities maintain the basic mathematical skills they have acquired so they may apply these skills in daily life. To support maintenance of mathematical skills among students with developmental disabilities, the researchers used a multiple probe across participants design to examine the effectiveness of the VRA instructional sequence with fading support in teaching subtraction with regrouping to four students with developmental disabilities. A functional relation was found between the VRA instructional sequence with fading support and students' accuracy in solving the problems. Students also maintained the skill up to 6 weeks after the intervention.

Comparing the effectiveness of two app-based number lines to teach price comparison to students with autism spectrum disorders.

PURPOSE: A number line consisting of Arabic numerals is a commonly used instructional tool for teaching price comparison. However, typical number lines lack concrete visual cues, which may benefit students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) who have not yet mastered the representation of Arabic numerals. METHOD: This study investigated the effects of additional visual cues (i.e., dots) by comparing two types of app-based number line conditions: number lines with and without dots. A single-subject, alternating treatment design study was employed across five secondary students with ASD. RESULTS: Both number line conditions were effective for four of the students in assisting them to select cheaper items and complete task analysis steps. The number line with dots was effective or slightly more effective in selecting smaller numbers for three of the students. CONCLUSIONS: The findings of this study support the literature on the use of number lines as an effective tool to assist students in price comparison. The benefits of adding concrete visual cues and other teaching strategies (e.g., the holistic and decomposition models) were discussed. Implications for Rehabilitation This study investigated the effectiveness of concrete visual cues, such as dots, on a number line app for teaching students with ASD who had not yet developed the association of quantities with the numerals. We found that incorporation of a hybrid number comparison model - first holistic (for whole numbers) and then decomposition (for numbers after the decimal point) - is effective when teaching students how to compare prices with an uneven number of digits. This study provides an alternative for special education teachers to schedule practice, such as the use of simulated settings to achieve mastery, then transitioning to community-based settings to test skill generalization.

Using the virtual-representational instructional sequence to support the acquisition and maintenance of mathematics for students with intellectual disability.

Mathematics instruction - and interventions to support mathematics teaching - for students with intellectual disability is important yet underexamined. This study explored a graduated instructional sequence referred to as the virtual-representational (VR) as a mathematical intervention. Researchers taught four students with disabilities what multiplication or division means and how to solve the problems first via virtual manipulatives and subsequently via pictorial representations. The researchers found a functional relation between student accuracy in solving multiplication or division problems and the intervention of the VR instructional sequence for three of the four students; for the fourth student, the researchers added the system of least prompts (SLP) to the virtual subphase of intervention. Researchers also found the students were able to maintain their accuracy in solving multiplication and division problems at rates exceeding baseline when instruction did not precede.

Increasing physical activity for adults with autism spectrum disorder: Comparing in-person and technology delivered praise.

BACKGROUND/AIMS/METHODS: While there are many benefits to regular engagement in physical activity, individuals with autism spectrum disorder often do not engage in healthy levels of physical activity. The purpose of this study was to compare praise delivered through multiple means on increasing engagement in physical activity for individuals with autism spectrum disorder. A single-case alternating treatment design was used to compare two conditions for delivering praise statements, in-person and through technology, for three young adults with autism spectrum disorder and accompanying intellectual disability. PROCEDURES/OUTCOMES: The study consisted of training; baseline, comparison, best-treatment, thinning, and generalization phases; and social validity interviews. For each session, data were collected on the number of laps completed, duration, and resting/ending heart rates. RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: The number of laps completed increased for all participants during intervention, however, results were mixed regarding the more effective and preferred condition. Participants who excelled in the technology condition also maintained performance levels when praise statements were thinned and generalized performance to a new setting. IMPLICATIONS: Praise statements can be used to increase levels of physical activity in young adults with autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability. Exposing individuals to multiple conditions can impact their preferred method for receiving support.

Using the virtual-abstract instructional sequence to teach addition of fractions.

BACKGROUND/AIMS/METHODS: Limited literature examines mathematics education for students with mild intellectual disability. This study investigated the effects of using the Virtual-Abstract instructional sequenceto teach middle school students, predominantly with mild intellectual disability, to add fractions of unlike denominators. Researchers used a multiple probe across participants design to determine if a functional relation existed between the Virtual-Abstract instructional sequence strategy and students' ability to add fractions with unlike denominators. PROCEDURES/OUTCOMES: The study of consisted of three-to-nine baseline sessions, 6-11 intervention sessions, and two maintenance sessions for each student. Data were collected on accuracy across five addition of fractions with unlike denominators problems. RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: The VA instructional strategy was effective in thestudents to add fractions with unlike denominators; a functional relation existed between the VA instructional sequence and adding fractions with unlike denominators for three of the four students. IMPLICATIONS: The Virtual-Abstract instructional sequencemay be appropriate to support students with mild intellectual disability in learning mathematics, especially when drawing or representing the mathematical concepts may prove challenging.

Predictors of Risky Behavior and Offending for Adolescents With Mild Intellectual Disability.

Adolescents with intellectual disability (ID) engage in risky behavior and offending. However, little is known on the impact school-related predictors have on engagement in risky behaviors for adolescents with ID. This study analyzed secondary data from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2) to determine levels of engagement in risky behaviors and offending for adolescents with mild and moderate/severe ID. School-related predictors of engagement for adolescents with mild ID were also explored. Results indicated adolescents with mild ID engage in risky behaviors and offending at significantly higher rates as compared to adolescents with moderate/severe ID. Participation in a social skills or life skills class was a significant predictor of less engagement in risky behaviors for individuals with mild ID.

Supporting grocery shopping for students with intellectual disability:a preliminary study.

PURPOSE: Decades of research exist supporting various types of self-operating prompting systems, including picture, audio and video to help students with disabilities acquire skills, especially to teach life skills. While many facets of life skills are important to target for instruction for secondary students with intellectual disability, one receiving declining attention is grocery shopping. METHOD: Using a single subject alternating treatment design with two high school students with intellectual disability, the authors analysed the impact of three self-operating prompts systems - picture, audio and video - on students' successful selection of grocery items, independence in completing the task (i.e., percent of steps not prompted), and task completion time. RESULTS: Results showed video prompting to be most successful prompting system for both students for selecting grocery items. However, independence and task completion time varied significantly for the students across the prompting systems. CONCLUSIONS: It is important to match the correct prompting system to individual students' skills, needs and preference, but also to balance efficiency - both for educators and students. Implications for Rehabilitation Video prompting is an effective instructional strategy, but must be considered in light of time and skill to create the video prompts as well as social stigmatization of use in natural community settings. It is important to match the correct prompting system to each student, but also to balance efficiency - both for educators and students.

Examining Postsecondary Education Predictors and Participation for Students With Learning Disabilities.

Given the history of poor postschool outcomes for students with disabilities, researchers repeatedly sought to demonstrate the links between predictor variables and postschool outcomes for students with disabilities. This secondary data analysis used the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 to examine the relationship between postsecondary education-related transition services and postsecondary education participation for students with learning disabilities. Logistic regression analyses indicated receiving core content area instruction in the general education classroom was positively related to postsecondary education participation. Frequency distributions indicated students with learning disabilities attended 2-year college at higher rates than other postsecondary education programs. The results suggest educators should consider inclusion in general education classroom for core content area instruction for students with learning disabilities with postsecondary education goals to the extent permitted by their least restrictive environment.

Comparing a number line and audio prompts in supporting price comparison by students with intellectual disability.

BACKGROUND/AIMS/METHODS: Price comparison is an important and complex skill, but it lacks sufficient research attention in terms of educating secondary students with intellectual disability and/or autism spectrum disorder. This alternating treatment design study compared the use of a paper-based number line and audio prompts delivered via an audio recorder to support three secondary students with intellectual disability to independently and accuracy compare the price of three separate grocery items. PROCEDURES/OUTCOMES: The study consisted of 22 sessions, spread across baseline, intervention, best treatment, and two different generalization phases. Data were collected on the percent of task analysis steps completed independently, the type of prompts needed, students' accuracy selecting the lowest priced item, and task completion time. RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: With both intervention conditions, students were able to independently complete the task analysis steps as well as accurately select the lowest priced item and decrease their task completion time. For two of the students, the audio recorder condition resulted in the greatest independence and for one the number line. For only one student was the condition with the greatest independence also the condition for the highest rate of accuracy. IMPLICATIONS: The results suggest both tools can support students with price comparison. Yet, audio recorders offer students and teachers an age-appropriate and setting-appropriate option.

Exploring assistive technology and post-school outcomes for students with severe disabilities.

PURPOSE: This study sought to understand the extent to which students with severe disabilities receive assistive technology in school and out-of-school, and the relationship between receipt of assistive technology in school and post-school outcomes for these students. METHOD: This study was a secondary analysis of the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2) from the USA. To analyze the data in this correlational study, researchers conducted frequency distributions, Chi Square Tests of Associations, significance tests and logistic regressions. RESULTS: The main results suggest (a) receipt of assistive technology in school varied greatly by disability identification; (b) receipt of assistive technology post-school also varied by disability identification, but receipt was generally lower; and (c) few statistically significant post-school outcome differences existed between students who received assistive technology and those who did not. CONCLUSION: An under-utilization of assistive technology exists in practice in the USA for students with severe disabilities. Implications for Rehabilitation An under-utilization of assistive technology for secondary students and adults with severe disabilities likely exists. A need exists for improved collaboration between professionals in rehabilitation and professionals in schools to ensure continuation of needed services or aids, such as assistive technology. Additional research is needed to better understand the adult life (or post-school) outcomes of individuals with severe disabilities, factors from PK-12 schooling or post-school services that positively and negative impact those outcomes.

Does Curriculum Matter for Secondary Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders: Analyzing the NLTS2.

A common presumption of secondary education is that what occurs in-school impacts students after they exit school. Previous researchers found transition-services received in school by students with autism spectrum disorder predicted their post-school success with regards to employment and independent living. This secondary analysis of the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 sought to understand the relationship between curriculum--functional versus non-functional--and seven measures of post-school outcomes for students with autism spectrum disorder. The main results of the study include low rates of receipt of a functional curriculum, poor post-school outcomes, and the lack of relationship between curriculum and post-school outcomes for students with autism spectrum disorder.

Virtual and concrete manipulatives: a comparison of approaches for solving mathematics problems for students with autism spectrum disorder.

Students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are included in general education classes and expected to participate in general education content, such as mathematics. Yet, little research explores academically-based mathematics instruction for this population. This single subject alternating treatment design study explored the effectiveness of concrete (physical objects that can be manipulated) and virtual (3-D objects from the Internet that can be manipulated) manipulatives to teach single- and double-digit subtraction skills. Participants in this study included three elementary-aged students (ages ranging from 6 to 10) diagnosed with ASD. Students were selected from a clinic-based setting, where all participants received medically necessary intensive services provided via one-to-one, trained therapists. Both forms of manipulatives successfully assisted students in accurately and independently solving subtraction problem. However, all three students demonstrated greater accuracy and faster independence with the virtual manipulatives as compared to the concrete manipulatives. Beyond correctly solving the subtraction problems, students were also able to generalize their learning of subtraction through concrete and virtual manipulatives to more real-world applications.

Hearing Math: Algebra Supported eText for Students With Visual Impairments.

Supported eText for students with visual impairments in mathematics has a promising, emerging literature base, although little of the existing research focuses on implementation within a classroom setting. This qualitative study sought to understand the use of supported eText to deliver algebra to students with visual impairments enrolled in algebra mathematics courses. The study also sought to explore supported eText in contrast to students' traditional means of accessing an algebra text. The main results suggest supported eText holds potential in terms of delivering mathematics content; however, more research and more reflection on the field is needed regarding this approach as a sole means of presenting text. Implications for teacher professional development and implementation practices are discussed.

Spelling on the fly: investigating a pentop computer to improve the spelling skills of three elementary students with disabilities.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a pentop computer and accompanying spelling software on the spelling accuracy and academic engagement behavior in three elementary students with disabilities who were served in a resource room setting. Using a multiple baseline across students single subject research design, researchers determined student use of the pentop computer--the FLYPen--and its spelling software may serve as an equivalent intervention to traditional spelling instruction. While academic engagement performance increased considerably for students when using the FLYPen, results indicated little to no improvement over traditional instruction in spelling accuracy. Implications and suggestions for future research are presented.

Middle school special education teachers' perceptions and use of assistive technology in literacy instruction.

In this research the authors examined middle school special education teachers' perceptions of assistive technology during literacy instruction with students with high incidence disabilities. A survey explored the use, effectiveness, and factors impacting use or effectiveness of assistive technology for literacy teaching and learning. Results suggested teachers' perceived assistive technology to be an effective tool for literacy, but use it minimally. When assistive technology was used, teachers indicated it was an effective literacy support. Teachers also reported barriers to using assistive technology in literacy including cost, usability, and lack of training/experience. However, factors such as previous successful experiences with assistive technology and assistive technology supporting students' learning encouraged assistive technology use. The consistency of teachers' reports of needing more experience and knowledge in assistive technology to fully use it suggests implications for preservice preparation such as providing additional experiences and information on assistive technology.

Interanimation: repositioning possibilities in educational contexts.

Changing discursive practices is necessary for educational social justice and is made possible through the interanimation of diverse ways of knowing that create dynamic tensions and challenge reliance on narrow views of what counts as legitimate knowledge. In this article, we accept the challenge that Reid and Valle put forth in creating new discourses of possibility through the animation of sociocultural and critical theory as they might apply to the interrogation of two aspects of the meaning-making process: (a) the interanimation of voices across systems as a condition of reculturing institutions and communities of practice, and (b) instructional activity settings in educational contexts (e.g., disciplinary apprenticeships). We conclude this article by examining possibilities for collaborative research activity.